Islam’s Emergence in the 7th Century AD
- 14 January 2023
- 2 Comments
- 13 Min Read
ISLAM'S EMERGENCE AND EXPANSION
The 7th century was a pivotal era that marked Islam’s emergence and sweeping changes across Asia, Europe, and North Africa. In 622, the Prophet Muhammad united the Arabian Peninsula, establishing a foundation for the Islamic faith and setting in motion a transformative period of religious, cultural, and territorial expansion. Following Muhammad’s death in 632, the Rashidun Caliphs took charge, expanding the nascent Islamic state’s influence far beyond Arabia. Under their leadership and subsequently the Umayyad Caliphate, Islamic forces rapidly advanced, toppling the Sasanian Empire and securing control over vast territories, including Persia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and much of North Africa. These conquests laid the groundwork for an Islamic civilization that would later be marked by significant scientific, artistic, and intellectual achievements.
The Byzantine Empire, meanwhile, faced both internal strife and external pressures that tested its resilience. The empire grappled with the first major waves of Slavic migration into the Balkans, which reshaped the demographics and sociopolitical landscape of the region. Perhaps the greatest challenge came in 674-678 with the First Arab Siege of Constantinople. This critical encounter tested the defences of the Byzantine capital and, by repelling the siege, underscored the empire’s strategic importance as a bastion against Islamic expansion into Europe.
Other cultures and regions were transforming their own. The Councils of Toledo, held in the Visigothic Kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula, sought to consolidate the power of the Visigothic monarchy and establish closer ties between the monarchy and the Christian church. In the British Isles, Northumbria emerged as a powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom, shaping the early medieval political and religious landscape of England. Meanwhile, in East Asia, the Tang dynasty was established in China in 618, initiating a golden age of Chinese culture, governance, and trade. The Tang era would be renowned for its advancements in poetry, art, and bureaucracy, with influences that extended as far as the Islamic Caliphates via the Silk Road.
Collectively, these developments signaled a period of intense transformation, as new religious, political, and cultural orders arose across different continents, laying a complex and interconnected foundation for the medieval world.
TIMELINE
In the 7th century AD, the army in Constantinople revolted against Emperor Maurice, and the general population joined in, targeting the wealthy. Christians turned against Christians as Maurice and his family were brutally killed. The mutineers then placed the heads of the victims on display and threw their bodies into the sea. A low-ranking military officer named Phocas then seized power as the new emperor. Pope Gregory expressed his approval of Maurice's demise, describing the rise of Phocas as the will of God. He called for Catholics to pray for Phocas' strength against his adversaries.
In 610, Heraclius arrived in Constantinople via ship from Africa, overthrew the reigning Eastern Roman Emperor Phocas, and took the throne himself. One of his first major decisions as emperor was to shift the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire from Latin to Greek, which was already spoken by the majority of the population.
In the early days of his preaching, Muhammad's message was met with little attention and even scepticism in his hometown of Mecca. He began to publicly share his belief in the oneness of God and the need for moral reform, but many of his fellow Meccans ignored him or thought him to be crazy. Despite this, Muhammad continued to spread his message, gathering a small group of followers who believed in his teachings. This group would eventually grow, and Muhammad's message would gain widespread acceptance, leading to the formation of the Islamic religion. The early rejection and the perseverance of Muhammad and his followers laid the foundation of one of the most influential religions in the world.
Æthelfrith, who was the king of Northumbria, emerged victorious in a battle against the Welsh at Chester, England. This battle was a significant event in the 7th century AD in England and marked a turning point in the territorial disputes between the Northumbrian and Welsh kingdoms. Æthelfrith's victory in this battle expanded his kingdom's territory and solidified his power. This event also had an impact on the relations between the Northumbrian and Welsh kingdoms and the political and military landscape of the time. The victory at Chester was a significant achievement for Æthelfrith and his kingdom of Northumbria.
622 AD: A group of people visiting Mecca from the town of Yathrib were impressed by Muhammad and his teachings, they invited him to come back to Yathrib with them.
623 AD: Muhammad and his followers stopped facing towards Jerusalem during prayers and instead began facing towards Mecca. Additionally, Muhammad abandoned the traditional Jewish Sabbath of Saturday and instead made Friday a special day for the Muslim community.
624 AD: Due to economic difficulties in Yathrib, Muhammad organized raids on merchant caravans to acquire resources. The most successful of these raids was at Bedr, where the raiders killed an estimated 50-70 people from Mecca. This action led to increased hostility between Muhammad and Mecca.
The Avars, the Slavs and the Persians jointly laid siege to the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in the 7th century AD. Despite their combined efforts, they were unable to capture the city. The siege was a significant event in the history of the Byzantine Empire and Europe as a whole. The Byzantine Empire's capital, Constantinople, was considered one of the most heavily fortified cities in the world at the time, and the fact that it was able to withstand the joint attack of these three powerful enemies demonstrated the strength of the Byzantine defense and the skill of its military. The failure of this siege also had an impact on the political and military landscape of Europe, as it prevented the Avars, Slavs and Persians from gaining control of the strategically important city and served as a reminder of the Byzantine Empire's strength.
The Arab-Byzantine wars were a series of conflicts that took place between Muslim Arab dynasties and the Byzantine Empire between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. These wars began during the initial Muslim conquests led by the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs in the 7th century and continued under their successors until the mid-11th century.
The early Muslim or Islamic conquests, also known as the Arab conquests, were a series of military campaigns led by Muhammad, the founder of Islam, in the 7th century. These conquests united Arabia under a new political system and quickly spread under the leadership of the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate, resulting in the establishment of Islamic rule across three continents. Scottish historian James Buchan notes that these conquests were both swift and extensive, comparable only to those of Alexander the Great and more enduring.
Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, died on June 8, 632. He was a religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam in the 7th century. He began receiving revelations from God, through the angel Gabriel, when he was 40 years old and over the next 23 years, he preached the message of Islam and converted many people to the faith. He also led many military campaigns to spread Islam and unite the Arabian Peninsula under its rule. His death was a significant event in the history of Islam, as it marked the end of the era of the Prophet and the beginning of the era of the Caliphs. His death also caused a major succession crisis among his followers, leading to the formation of two main sects of Islam, the Sunni and the Shia.
In 638 AD, the Muslim armies, under the command of the Muslim leader Khalid ibn al-Walid, conquered Palestine, a region on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. The Byzantine Empire, which controlled Palestine at the time, was unable to mount a successful defence against the Muslim invaders. The Muslim conquest of Palestine marked a significant turning point in the history of the region, as it brought an end to Byzantine rule and marked the beginning of Muslim rule. The Muslim armies were able to quickly gain control of the major cities in Palestine, such as Jerusalem, Caesarea, and Gaza, and the local population largely accepted the new rulers. This campaign was the start of a series of conquests that would expand the Muslim empire into North Africa and the Middle East and bring the region under the Islamic faith and culture.
The Muslim army under the command of 'Amr ibn al-'As captured Egypt between 639 and 646 AD during the Rashidun Caliphate. This marked the end of Roman rule in Egypt, which had lasted for seven centuries since 30 BC. The Byzantine Empire's control over Egypt had been weakened due to a previous invasion and occupation by the Sasanian Empire from 618-629, which was later regained by Byzantine emperor Heraclius. However, the caliphate was able to seize Egypt a decade later, taking advantage of the Byzantine's weakened state.
The First Fitna, also known as the "strife/sedition of the killing of Uthman," was the initial civil war within the Islamic community. It resulted in the downfall of the Rashidun Caliphate and the rise of the Umayyad Caliphate. The war was primarily fought between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, and various rebel factions.
In 660, The Koran considered a complete and organized text, was published for the first time. After his conquest of Mecca, Muhammad faced resistance from various tribes in Arabia and rival prophets. The Koran reflects this struggle by describing non-believers as evil and stating that they can expect war from God (3.151). However, the Koran also promotes peace with those who are willing to make peace (8.61). Muhammad aimed for peaceful coexistence among different groups within his realm, including Christians and Jews, and imposed taxes on them. The Koran also includes verses about Christians and Jews not fearing or grieving (2.62). Additionally, as Muhammad drew from the biblical tradition present in Arabia, the Koran mentions biblical figures and reiterates the message of God's love and grace (5.54).
An assassination attempt was made on Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, and he died from his injuries. This event further exacerbated the divide between his supporters, known as Shia Muslims, and their rivals, the Sunni Muslims. The Sunni Muslims were then establishing a new caliphate in Damascus, Syria.
In 664, the First Fitna, a civil war that had divided the early Muslim community, came to an end, resulting in the consolidation of power under Caliph Mu'awiyah I, who established his capital in Damascus, marking the beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate. This unification brought a period of relative stability to the Islamic world, which allowed Mu'awiyah to focus on expanding Islamic influence beyond Arabia through military campaigns. Under his leadership, the Umayyad forces resumed their expansion, targeting key regions such as North Africa, Central Asia, and the eastern frontiers of the Byzantine Empire. Mu'awiyah also initiated a naval campaign in the Mediterranean, significantly boosting Muslim maritime power and threatening Byzantine dominance in the region. The renewed military vigour under Mu'awiyah helped lay the foundations for a vast, interconnected Islamic empire, which would continue to spread Islamic culture, law, and administration across a diverse range of territories, establishing a legacy that shaped the political landscape of the Near East and beyond for centuries.
The Battle of Ongal occurred during the summer of 680 in an area known as Ongal, near the Danube Delta and Peuce Island, which is currently located in Tulcea County, Romania. The conflict was between the Bulgars, who had recently entered the Balkans, and the Byzantine Empire, which ultimately lost the battle. This battle was a significant factor in the formation of the First Bulgarian Empire.
In 688, Emperor Justinian II of the Byzantine Empire achieved a significant victory against the Bulgarians. The Byzantine Empire had been engaged in a series of conflicts with the Bulgarians, who had recently established their kingdom in the Balkans. The victory of Justinian II marked a turning point in the Byzantine-Bulgarian wars and marked a resurgence of Byzantine power in the region. However, it was not a definitive victory, as the conflict between the two empires continued in the following years. The victory allowed Emperor Justinian II to strengthen his rule and secure his position as the ruler of the Byzantine Empire.
In 698, the Arab forces captured Carthage from the Byzantine Empire. Carthage, located in modern-day Tunisia, was a major city in the Roman province of Africa and a key trading post in the Mediterranean. The Byzantine Empire had controlled Carthage for several centuries, but the Arab conquest marked the beginning of the city's decline. The Arab victory was significant as it marked a major shift in the balance of power in the Mediterranean and North Africa and allowed the Arab empire to control the key trade routes. The fall of Carthage also marked the beginning of the end of Byzantine rule in Africa, and the Arab conquest of North Africa was a major step towards the Arabization of the region.
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SOURCE
Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, December 12). 7th century. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_century
World History Timeline: 7th Century (601 to 700). (2015). Fsmitha.com. http://www.fsmitha.com/time/ce07.htm
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Luciano Anastasi
Luciano is the founder of the MedievalHistory platform and the LinkedIn History Enthusiasts Group, where he is dedicated to curating and sharing high-quality medieval history content. His goal is to engage scholars, teachers, students, and enthusiasts by fostering insightful discussions and promoting scholarly resources on topics from medieval warfare and religion to societal transformations and daily life in the Middle Ages.
Luciano is also an active book reviewer, focusing on academic publications related to medieval history. He recently collaborated with Yale University Press to review forthcoming medieval history titles, aiming to deepen educators' and researchers' understanding of the period. Alongside his history endeavors, he has over 40 years of experience in IT leadership roles across various industries, including the public sector, banking, insurance, airlines and consulting, and has contributed to United Nations projects.
With a Master of Arts in Business Process Management, Luciano combines his expertise in IT strategy and governance with his passion for medieval history. He leverages technology to bridge the academic community and the wider public, making historical scholarship more accessible through engaging online content.
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