Italian Early Medieval: A Mosaic of Kingdoms and Cultures
- 22 September 2023
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ITALIAN EARLY MEDIEVAL AGE
Charting the Course of Italy
Italy’s Early Medieval timeline is a captivating journey through a transformative period in its history, from the crumbling remnants of the Roman Empire to the emergence of powerful city-states. Spanning roughly from the late 5th to the 11th century, this era is marked by significant political upheaval, cultural exchange, and the birth of new identities.
The Fall of Rome and the Barbarian Influx (5th – 6th Century)
The decline of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century ushered in the Early Medieval period in Italy. In 476 AD, the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. This marked the symbolic end of Roman rule in the Italian Peninsula.
Various barbarian groups, including the Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Lombards, descended upon Italy, each leaving its mark on the landscape and culture. The once-mighty Roman infrastructure crumbled as these groups established their own kingdoms, competing for dominance.
Byzantine Italy (6th – 8th Century)
In the midst of this turmoil, the Byzantine Empire maintained control over parts of Italy, notably the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Duchy of Rome. Byzantine influence brought a strong Eastern Roman cultural and religious presence, shaping the Italian identity.
The Lombard Kingdoms (6th – 8th Century)
The Lombards, a Germanic people, established several kingdoms in Italy, with their capital in Pavia. They ruled over much of the peninsula, except for areas under Byzantine control and the Papal States. This period saw the emergence of new political entities that laid the groundwork for regional divisions within Italy.
Carolingian Period and Papal States (8th – 10th Century)
The Carolingian dynasty, centred in the Frankish Empire, exerted influence in Italy during the 8th and 9th centuries. Charlemagne’s coronation as Emperor of the Romans in 800 AD brought Italy into the orbit of the Carolingian Empire.
Simultaneously, the Papal States emerged as a significant political entity under the leadership of the papacy. The Church played a central role in Italian affairs, both politically and culturally.
The Rise of City-States (9th – 11th Century)
Toward the end of the Early Medieval era, Italy witnessed the growth of powerful city-states, including Venice, Florence, Genoa, and others. These city-states began to assert their independence and play pivotal roles in shaping the Italian peninsula’s destiny. They became hubs of trade, culture, and innovation, setting the stage for the Renaissance and Italian unification in the centuries to come.
The Italian Early Medieval timeline is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of the Italian people in the face of sweeping changes. It laid the foundation for the rich tapestry of regional cultures, artistic achievements, and political landscapes that continue to define Italy today. This era’s legacy remains palpable in Italy’s diverse regions, each with its own distinct history and identity, contributing to the enduring allure of this historic and culturally rich country.
TIMELINE
In the 5th century, Italy faced an invasion by the Visigoths, and in 410, Rome suffered a devastating sack at the hands of Alaric.
In 476, the Eastern Germanic general Odoacer deposed the traditionally recognized final Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus. Odoacer, who reigned for seventeen years in Italy as "rex gentium," ostensibly acknowledged the suzerainty of the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno but effectively governed with full autonomy. During his rule, the administrative structure largely mirrored that of the Western Roman Empire and extended religious freedoms to Christians. Odoacer also engaged in conflicts against the Vandals, who had taken control of Sicily, as well as various Germanic tribes that intermittently encroached upon the Italian peninsula.
On February 25, 493, Theodoric the Great emerged victorious over Odoacer, ascending to the throne as the Ostrogothic king. Despite his Germanic origins, Theodoric had spent a considerable time in Constantinople and is commonly regarded as a Romanized figure. His rule over Italy predominantly relied on Roman officials and administrators.
The Gothic War, occurring between 535 and 554, pitted the Eastern Roman
Empire, ruled by Emperor Justinian I, against the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. This conflict unfolded across various regions, including the Italian Peninsula, Dalmatia, Sardinia, Sicily, and Corsica. It marked one of the final chapters in a series of Gothic Wars waged by the Roman Empire.
The war's origins can be traced to the ambitious agenda of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Justinian I. He aimed to reclaim territories in the former Western Roman Empire lost to invading barbarian tribes during the preceding century, particularly during the Migration Period.
The Lombards, also known as the Longobards (Latin: Longobardi), were a Germanic group that conquered most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774 through conquest.
In 751, the Lombards captured Ravenna, leading to the dissolution of the Exarchate of Ravenna. This event marked the conclusion of Byzantine authority in central Italy, even though certain coastal cities and pockets in southern Italy continued to remain under Byzantine rule until the 11th century.
Confronted by a fresh Lombard offensive, the papacy sought assistance from the Franks. In 756, Frankish troops triumphed over the Lombards, establishing the legal authority of the papacy over central Italy and leading to the formation of the Papal States. Nevertheless, the rest of Italy remained under Lombard control, as exemplified by regions like Benevento and Spoleto, or Byzantine control, as seen in areas such as Calabria, Apulia, and Sicily.
In 774, responding to an invitation from the Papacy, the Franks launched an invasion into the Kingdom of Italy and ultimately absorbed the Lombards into their domain. In recognition of this assistance, Frankish King Charlemagne gained the backing of the Papacy.
Pope Leo III resurrected the title of Roman emperor in Western Europe, more than three centuries following the demise of the ancient Western Roman Empire in 476, by crowning Frankish King Charlemagne as the Roman Emperor on December 25, 800.
Following the passing of Charlemagne in 814, the newly established empire quickly unravelled during the reign of his ineffectual successors. The stability previously maintained through the remarkable charisma of the great emperor eroded. This decline was exacerbated by external factors, such as Saracen incursions and the growing influence of maritime republics.
Charlemagne had already outlined his plan to divide the Empire in 806, designating his son Pepin of Italy to govern the Lombard-Frank realm, along with Bavaria and Alamannia.
In the year 827, Sicily was invaded and subsequently conquered by Muslim Arabs known as the Aghlabids. The island remained under their rule and that of their descendants, the Kalbids, until the year 1053.
In the year 840, after a brief period of considering allegiance to the Franks, specifically to Lothair I, and the appointment of a Frankish duke named Duke Contard, the people of Naples chose Sergius I as their magister militum. Sergius I founded a dynasty known as the Sergi, which would govern the duchy for the ensuing three centuries.
Following the passing of Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, in 840, the Treaty of Verdun, established in 843, marked the division of the Carolingian Empire. Lothair I, Louis' eldest surviving son, assumed the role of Emperor and ruled over the Central Franks. Subsequently, Lothair I's three sons divided this realm among themselves, with Northern Italy evolving into the Kingdom of Italy, which was later governed by Louis II, who held the title of Holy Roman Emperor starting in 839.
In 846, Rome was subjected to an invasion by Muslim Arabs who ransacked St. Peter's Basilica, plundering all its gold and silver treasures. In reaction to this, Pope Leo IV initiated the construction of the Leonine walls surrounding Vatican City in 847, a project that concluded in 853. In the latter part of the 9th century, the Byzantines and the Franks jointly launched an offensive campaign against the Arabs in southern Italy.
In the year 849, Emperor Louis II, in one of his initial actions as King of Italy, launched an invasion of the Italian peninsula. His primary objective was to establish peace among the warring Lombard factions. As a resolution, he partitioned the principality into two distinct entities, one centred in Benevento and the other in Salerno. From that point onward, the narrative of the Lombard South unfolds as a tale of diminishing and rivalling authorities.
In 852, the Saracens captured Bari, establishing an emirate in the region. This posed a significant threat to Greek influence and Adriatic trade. To counter this, the Byzantine emperor sought an alliance with Louis II of Italy. Simultaneously, Adelchis, the new ruler of Benevento, an independent-minded leader, also sought Louis's assistance.
Louis intervened, recapturing Bari in 871 following a prolonged siege. He then attempted to extend his influence across the southern territories by stationing his troops in Beneventan fortresses. In response, Adelchis imprisoned and robbed Louis while the emperor was residing in the princely palace at Benevento. Later, Saracens landed with a new invading force, prompting Adelchis to release Louis and have him lead the armies against this threat. Adelchis compelled Louis to swear never to return to Benevento with an army or seek revenge for his detention.
In 951, King Otto I of Germany entered into matrimony with Adelaide of Burgundy, who was the widow of the late King Lothair II of Italy. Despite facing competition from his rival, Margrave Berengar of Ivrea, Otto went on to claim the Iron Crown of Lombardy in Pavia. As a result, the thrones of Italy and Germany were unified under his rule.
In 960, when Berengar launched an attack on the Papal States, Pope John XII called upon King Otto for assistance. Otto responded by conquering the Kingdom of Italy, and on February 2, 962, he received the coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Rome, effectively resurrecting the legacy of Charlemagne's empire. Following this event, the monarchs of Italy consistently held the title of the Kings of Germany, solidifying Italy as an integral kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire, alongside the Kingdom of Germany (regnum Teutonicorum) and, beginning in 1032, Burgundy. The German king (Rex Romanorum) would undergo a coronation ceremony conducted by the Archbishop of Milan, who used the Iron Crown in Pavia as a preliminary step before heading to Rome for the imperial coronation by the Pope.
Following the death of Emperor Otto III in 1002, Margrave Arduin of Ivrea, who followed in the footsteps of the late Berengar, managed to secure the Italian crown. He even emerged victorious against the imperial forces led by Duke Otto I of Carinthia. It wasn't until 1004 that the new German King, Henry II of Germany, with support from Bishop Leo of Vercelli, could venture into Italy and receive the title of "rex Italiae." Arduin is recognized as the final native "King of Italy" before the ascension of Victor Emmanuel II in 1861.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
SOURCE
Storia dell’Esarcato d’Italia. (2015). Homolaicus.com. https://www.homolaicus.com/storia/medioevo/esarcato.htm
The End of Europe’s Middle Ages – Italy’s City-States. (2023). Umb.edu. https://www.faculty.umb.edu/gary_zabel/Courses/Phil%20281b/Philosophy%20of%20Magic/Dante.%20etc/Philosophers/End/FRAMES/cityframe.html
Odoacre, Zenone e Teodorico – Storia e cronologia. (2018, September 11). Altervista.org. https://storiaecronologia.altervista.org/odoacre-zenone-e-teodorico/
Le 4 repubbliche marinare: Amalfi, Pisa, Genova e Venezia. (2021, November 14). Fatti per La Storia. https://www.fattiperlastoria.it/repubbliche-marinare/
Wikipedia Contributors. (2023, September 19). Italy in the Middle Ages. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages
Wikipedia Contributors. (2023, August 25). Ostrogothic Kingdom. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom
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Luciano Anastasi
Luciano is the founder of the MedievalHistory platform and the LinkedIn History Enthusiasts Group, where he is dedicated to curating and sharing high-quality medieval history content. His goal is to engage scholars, teachers, students, and enthusiasts by fostering insightful discussions and promoting scholarly resources on topics from medieval warfare and religion to societal transformations and daily life in the Middle Ages.
Luciano is also an active book reviewer, focusing on academic publications related to medieval history. He recently collaborated with Yale University Press to review forthcoming medieval history titles, aiming to deepen educators' and researchers' understanding of the period. Alongside his history endeavors, he has over 40 years of experience in IT leadership roles across various industries, including the public sector, banking, insurance, airlines and consulting, and has contributed to United Nations projects.
With a Master of Arts in Business Process Management, Luciano combines his expertise in IT strategy and governance with his passion for medieval history. He leverages technology to bridge the academic community and the wider public, making historical scholarship more accessible through engaging online content.
