Religious Motivators: Faith, Relics, and the Crusader States

Introduction

In the first article of this series, we looked at the primary motivators that led to the Crusades, the self-preservation of Christendom that was under assault from the expansionist Islamic world, to provide safe travel for Pilgrims travelling to the Holy Lands, to liberate Eastern Christians suffering persecution, and finally in response to Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos’s call for aid. However, more purely “religious” causes, such as restoring the Holy Land and especially the Holy Sepulcher to Christian rule, the protection of relics, and personal devotion to God played a role. We will take a look at these now.

Liberating the Holy Sepulcher and the Holy Land

“Considering how many are my sins and the love, clemency, and mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ, because when he was rich he became poor for our sake, I have determined to repay him in some measure for everything he has given me freely, although I am unworthy. and so I have decided to go to Jerusalem, where God was seen as a man and spoke with men, and to adore the place where his feet trod.” –Stephen of Neublans Quote in Rodney Stark, God’s Battalions

A primary objective of the Crusading effort was to free holy places, lands, churches, shrines, and relics from non-Christian control. The medieval Church was obsessed with returning to a purer form of Catholicism from the time of the apostles; likewise, politically and theologically, the importance and permanence of the Old Testament in its application to law and politics arose, driving a desire for Latin Christendom to learn more from and be closer to the events of the Old Testament and the life of Jesus. The increasing focus on the Holy Land was evident through various forms of expression such as artwork, sermons and music, and this led to increased pilgrim activity and obsession with relics. Scholar Jonathan Riley-Smith wrote, “Contemporary piety encouraged an almost feverish obsession with the holy places.” Professor and historian Alexander Flick wrote that this “became the mania of the Middle Ages—so that by the eleventh century a constant stream of pilgrims was going to and from the Holy Land.” And so the calls for restoring and protecting the holy sites became louder.

During the period of feudalism, a sworn vassal was obligated to come to their lord’s aid if he were attacked. In the mindset of the people during medieval times, Christ was considered their heavenly Lord, and the Holy Land, which was under assault, was considered his land, and his people (Christians) were being persecuted. Therefore, a faithful vassal was expected to come to Christ’s aid just as they would to their earthly lord. They were servants of the King of Kings, willing to die for him.

The Significance of Jerusalem

The Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, 15th July 1099″ by Émile Signol (1847)

The Church of Jerusalem was often referred to as the mother of churches—the place all of Christendom was born from and dependent on. Pope Urban focused on the recapture of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher as a vital reason to join the crusade. The importance of the Holy Land, especially the Holy City of Jerusalem, was paramount in Western medieval minds. Religion was a primary interest for all of Christendom, and the holy places played a vital role. It was like sports, politics, hobbies, and more, all wrapped together.

Jerusalem was the centre of the world and of the faith upon which they structured their entire society. Richard the Lionheart told Saladin that Jerusalem was the “centre of our worship.” Throughout Christendom, they celebrated the restoration of the Holy City with prayers, fasting, and celebrations. Jerusalem was a popular girl’s name during this period. Nothing was more Holy than the Holy Sepulcher, where the Savior was crucified, buried, and resurrected. Anna Comnena (who thought the Western Christians were barbarians who secretly wanted to capture Constantinople) was a Byzantine princess and historian who lived from 1083 to 1153. She met with the leaders of the First Crusade in Constantinople and wrote that they told her the purpose of their long-distance travel was to redeem the Holy Sepulchre.

A high church official in the papal court wrote that those who left on the Crusade did so “to snatch the Sepulchre of the Lord from the Muslims.” Raymond of Saint-Gilles said he was going “…on Pilgrimage to wage war on foreign peoples and defeat barbaric nations, lest the holy city of Jerusalem be held captive and the holy sepulchre of the Lord Jesus be contaminated any longer.” Historian Maurice Keen wrote, “The Crusaders did not see their gains in the Levant in terms of territorial aggrandizement. Rather, they were inspired by the belief that the shrines and the other places associated with the life of Christ…should be freed from the yoke of unbelievers and delivered into the safekeeping of the faithful.“

Those who took the cross and the pilgrims’ vow were just that—armed pilgrims on their way to visit the Holy Sepulcher and then, like other pilgrims, return home. After liberating the Holy City, the pilgrims worshipped at the church of the Holy Sepulcher to fulfil their vows. One member of the First Crusade wrote of the capture of Jerusalem, “Our men rushed the Holy City…. all came rejoicing and weeping from an excess of gladness to worship at the Sepulcher of our saviour Jesus, and there they fulfilled their vows.” Raymond d’Aguilers, who was a chronicler and participant in the first crusade, recorded that the pilgrims wept tears of joy as they visited “the Sepulcher of our Lord.” He mentioned that they sang and prayed and that all the hardships they had faced during their journey felt worthwhile at that moment, as it turned their labours and sorrows into joy and exultation. The Crusaders were referred to as pilgrims, received the same spiritual benefits as those on a pilgrimage, and often carried the staff symbol of a pilgrim. The indulgences they received were the same as for those who took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.

Relics as Religious Motivators

St. Louis IX receiving the Crown of Thorns and other relics from Constantinople (British Library, Royal 16 G VI f. 395)

Protecting relics was a primary motivator for many who took the cross. Byzantium used its threatened collection as a reason to ask the West for aid. Popes, preachers, and lords used them to recruit for various crusades, but one unquestionably stood out more than the rest.

The Crusader states had been pleading for aid for decades, but little help came from the West. Only after the loss of the relic of the Holy Cross (the True Cross- that Jesus was crucified on) and the Holy City came a massive response in the form of the Third Crusade. The loss of this most sacred of objects played a prominent role in the letters and pleas for assistance to the West that generated the response. The Third Crusade was launched to recapture the Holy City of Jerusalem and retrieve the relic of the True Cross that Saladin had captured at Hattin.

Many in Europe believed the loss of the relic was more devastating than losing the Holy City! The Duke of Burgundy told Saladin via a diplomat that they came to retake Jerusalem and the True Cross. During the negotiations between Saladin and Richard the Lionheart, the Holy Cross played a significant role. Professor Thomas Madden said, “Europeans thought all the time of the Holy Land and the relic of the true cross.” Richard the Lionheart carried Excalibur, King Arthur’s sword, on his crusade. Relics such as this of the True Cross gave them the confidence to attack and defeat larger armies, even changing strategy based on the availability of vital relics.

When the Crusaders seemed to face inevitable annihilation while besieged at Antioch, the Byzantine emperor, who was en route to Antioch to lift the siege, abandoned the mission upon realizing the hopelessness of their situation. Due to the circumstances, the Crusaders who deserted at Antioch informed the relief army, led by Emperor Alexius, to return to Constantinople. Not even the relief army led by the Emperor could rescue the Crusaders situation!! Viewing the situation as hopeless, many deserters reported that the crusade had already failed, and all the men who stayed behind were killed. Even those who chose to remain believed their situation was without hope. However, the supposed discovery of the Holy Lance (the spear that pierced the body of Jesus on the cross) at Antioch profoundly impacted the Crusaders. It turned a starving, outnumbered, ill-positioned army in a hopeless situation suffering from massive desertion into an unstoppable force that defeated a much more massive army. Its effects on the morale of the army were noted by Raymond d’Aguilers, who observed:

“[it] so comforted the hearts of all that each one in faith and hope seemed to himself already to have triumphed over his enemy. They urged on one another, and in urging regained courage for fighting. The crowd, too, which in the past days seemed to be consumed with want and fright, now reproached the princes and complained of the delay of the battle…changed the army from sadness to eagerness! … the priests and many monks, dressed in white robes, went in front of the lines of our knights, chanting and invoking the aid of the Lord and the benediction of the saints…. the priests, with bare feet and garbed in their priestly vestments, stood on the walls of the city, calling upon God to defend His people, and through the victory of the Franks in this battle to afford a testimony hallowed by His blood.”

A Calling From God

“… the crusades were only acts of faith. To cause the law of God to triumph… these brave men quit their homes to undergo hunger and privation in a far-distant land, to die miserable, alone, with their expiring eyes turned towards Jerusalem, calling on the name of Jesus. These men believed in God, and died for him, hoping for a humble place among the saints and angels.” –Léon Gautier, Chivalry: The Everyday Life of the Medieval Knight

Continuing on the motivators of the first article, crusaders generally did not see themselves as aggressors. Instead, they acted on behalf of defenceless pilgrims, the Eastern Church, and others suffering from injustices. They self-sacrificingly gave up their comforts, lands, wealth, and so on to travel long distances to protect and help those in need.

Pope Urban II and other crusader preachers focused on the Biblical passage that read, “If any man would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me.” Urban said, “We ought to endure much suffering for the name of Christ – misery, poverty, nakedness, persecution, want, illness, hunger, thirst, and other (ills) of this kind.” They made it clear that money and power were not what would result; instead, they wanted devout believers, and the leaders recruiting volunteers were transparent about the journey’s dangers. Urban reported to his audience that pilgrims and native Eastern Christians were gruesomely tortured, robbed, and sold into slavery. Churches were being destroyed, altars, holy places and relics desecrated. Urban told them it would not be an easy journey and that they would face significant discomfort. It was a sacrifice to take the cross.

Martyrdom and Sacrifice

Pope Urban II orders First Crusade

Those who chose to take vows expected death as the most likely outcome. Urban referred to it as a “holy pilgrimage” that required participants to be martyrdom. Urban did not promise victory; instead, he spoke of death, saying, “If you are conquered, you will have the glory of dying in the very same place as Jesus Christ.“

The Crusaders had to travel great distances at significant cost, risking their lives and enduring sickness, hunger, and the dangers of combat to regain control of the Holy Land and help their persecuted brothers. Pope Eugene referred to crusading as “work and labour.” Very few survived the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Many died before reaching the Holy Land, and the risk was known. Fulcher of Chartres gives an account of a departure and is worth quoting at length:

“Oh, how great was the grief, how deep the sighs, what weeping, what lamentations among the friends, when the husband left the wife so dear to him, his children also, and all his possessions of any kind, father, mother, brethren, or kindred! And yet in spite of the floods of tears which those who remained shed for their friends about to depart, and in their very presence, the latter did not suffer their courage to fail, and, out of love for the Lord, in no way hesitated to leave all that they held most precious, believing without doubt that they would gain an hundred-fold in receiving the recompense which God has promised to those who love Him. Then the husband confided to his wife the time of his return and assured her that, if he lived, by God’s grace he would return to her. He commended her to the Lord, gave her a kiss, and, weeping, promised to return. But the latter, who feared that she would never see him again, overcome with grief, was unable to stand, fell as if lifeless to the ground, and wept over her dear one whom she was losing in life as if he were already dead.”

In 1187, Pope Gregory VIII underscored that nothing, including loss of life or money, should hinder the efforts to liberate Christians under persecution. He praised the Maccabees, who were on fire with zeal for the divine law, for risking their lives to save their brothers. Nothing should prevent help from being sent. Knowing they would likely perish, Baldric of Bourgueil wrote, “It is better for you to die in battle than to tolerate the abuse of your race and your holy places. Do not let the seductive lures of your women and possessions persuade you not to go.” They were willing to endure suffering and death for the sake of others who were oppressed.

Religious Justifications and Motivations

Matthew Flannagan and Paul Copan wrote, “The biblical texts cited to justify participation in the crusades were predominantly the teachings of Jesus in the New Testament – references of love, humility, self-sacrifice for the good of one’s neighbour, and so on. The Crusades were understood as an act of humble, loving service in which people risked their lives to liberate Eastern Christians from the threat of Muslim invasion of Christianized lands as well as Muslim attacks and actions of humiliation against Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land.”

Medieval historian Thomas Madden described the act of crusading, as understood by those who took the cross, as an act of mercy to correct the evil done to their Eastern Christian neighbours. They believed that they were acting out of love. He quotes Pope Innocent III, who wrote to the Knights Templar, “You carry out in deeds the words of the Gospel, ‘Greater love than this hath no man, that he lay down his life for his friends.'”

Bible passages, such as Abraham’s call in Genesis 12, were also used to support the Crusades. Preachers used these to portray the difficulty and danger of extended travel, the economic uncertainties and distance from family, as well as other examples of Biblical characters who were willing to take risks and suffer for their faith, even to the point of death. Another often-used example concerns the Maccabees, who restored and liberated captured holy sites from oppressive forces. Around 1100, Gilbert of Nogent wrote, “if the Maccabees in the days of old were renowned for their piety because they fought for the sacred rituals and the temple, then you too, Christian soldiers, may justly defend the freedom of the fatherland by the exercise of arms.” Numbers 21 and 24 were also commonly used to justify defensive war after the expansion of Islam.

The crusade preachers often used love and sacrifice to inspire the faithful, citing the gospels as motivation. Many crusaders took the vows and the opportunity for spiritual reflection, devotion, and sacrifice. They were inspired by verses such as Luke 9:23 and Matthew 16:24, where Jesus urged his followers to deny themselves, take up their cross, and follow him. This is why crusaders wore the cross on their clothes and carried crosses and banners – to symbolize the importance of self-denial and carrying one’s burden.

Personal Devotion to God

The First Crusade was referred to as “the pilgrimage for Christ” by William of Tyre, a 12th-century Archbishop and historian of the Latin States. Before embarking on their journey, crusaders frequently underwent religious purification and dedicated themselves to their faith. The oath to take the cross was an oath to God. Public displays of faith, such as fasting, almsgiving, confession, and repentance, were standard in the pilgrims’ experience and so it was with both the leaders and rank-and-file crusaders. Scholar Jonathan Riley-Smith referred to the Crusades as “penitential war -pilgrimages” where participants “considered themselves to be performing an act of penance.” He observed, “The crusaders regarded themselves as pilgrims, and while on crusade, they engaged in characteristic devotional and liturgical exercises.”

The Fourth Lateran Council declared that clergy who went on a crusade must be committed to spiritual warfare, fasting and prayer, and keeping crusaders from stumbling into sin while being quick to repent. The goal was to form a holy army that “feared God.”

Professor Thomas Madden wrote, “most noblemen who joined the crusade did so from a simple and sincere love of God.” Historian Dorsey Armstrong said, “In the majority of circumstances, a heartfelt religious devotion seems to be the underlying motivation.” Scholar Thomas Asbridge wrote “Documentary evidence predating the conquest of Jerusalem, such as letters and charters, nonetheless confirms that most crusaders were primarily inspired to set out for the Holy Land by personal Christian devotion…The evidence for the aristocratic response to the crusade message, strongly suggests that spiritual concerns dominated the minds of Latin nobility as they took the cross.” The participants wrote about their devotion to God and their willingness to make sacrifices as their reason for crusading.

Acts of Almsgiving and Sacrifice

James of Vitry wrote “What greater almsgiving can there be than offering oneself and one’s belonging to God and risking one’s life to Christ, leaving behind one’s wife, children, relations and birthplace for the service of Christ, exposing oneself to dangers on land, dangers at sea, dangers from thieves, dangers from plunderers, the danger of battle for the love of the crucified.” Eudes of Châteauroux said “it is a sign that man loves God when he casts aside the world. It is a sure sign that he burns with love for God and with zeal when for God’s sake he leaves his fatherland, possessions, houses, sons and wife to go across the sea in service of Jesus Christ.” Odo of Burgundy went as “a penance for my sins…. since divine mercy inspired me that owing to the enormity of my sins I should go to the sepulcher of our savior, in order that this offering of my devotion might be more acceptable in the sight of God.” Eudes of Châteauroux wrote “those who take the cross deny, that is to say renounce, themselves by exposing themselves to mortal danger, leaving behind their loved ones , using their goods, carrying their cross, so that afterwards, they may be carried to heaven by the cross.” Urban II at Clermont stated “it ought to be a beautiful ideal for you to die for Christ in that city where Christ died for you.” Crusader knight Ingelbald said “considering that God has spared me, steeped in many and great sins, and has given me time for penance, and fearing that the weight of my sins will deprive me of a share in the heavenly kingdom, I Ingelbald, wish to seek that sepulcher from which our redemption, having overcome death, wished to rise”. Another crusader was “sustained by faith and determination, by the driving religious enthusiasm which was the motor of the crusade”. The pilgrims left their families, homes, lands, wives, and children, Otto of St. Blasien tells us, “for the name of Christ and to take the cross and follow him across the sea.”

Abbot Ekkehard of Aura, who chronicled his journey with the Crusaders to the Holy Land, observed that those who refused to support the Crusades did so because they loved the worldly pleasures that this world had to offer. In contrast, he and others who sacrificed to travel with the Crusaders did so for the sake of the blessed Shepherd. They left behind their wives and children, their principalities and riches, and put their lives at risk. While they were on a crusade, Christ was their only king.

King of Kings and Lord of Lords

Crusader lords acknowledged the armies as God’s, not their own, and that they were vassals of the King of Kings. The faith of their leaders affected even the strategic decisions made by the Crusaders. In many cases, religious symbolism would take precedence over military considerations. For instance, before launching an attack on Jerusalem, the Crusaders marched barefoot around the city, emulating the Israelites marching around Jericho in the Old Testament, led by priests carrying crosses and relics. Their main attack went in at three in the afternoon, the time that Jesus died. The First Crusade departed on the Feast of the Assumption of Mary on August 15, 1096.

Before significant events, the army frequently engaged in religious practices such as prayer, confession, and fasting. Consistently, the leaders thanked God when they achieved victory and referred to the crusading army as His, not theirs. They witnessed and reported divine intervention on many occasions. Their response to difficulties, whether it be famine or being surrounded and outnumbered, was to pray and fast.

Guided By Faith – The Crusader States

Perhaps the faith of crusaders was displayed most prominently by the few who stayed behind to defend the Holy City and its relics and lands from the overwhelmingly numerically superior enemy. Having fulfilled their vows and already encountered hunger, death, loss of family ties and relationships and seeing the worst of humanity, a few chose not to return to family, friends, lands, castles, titles, and so on and dedicate themselves to protecting the holy sites and places now back in Christian control after the success of the First Crusade.

Not only would they be thousands of miles from their homes and from help that was never guaranteed from the West, but the majority of the population they would rule over was Muslim, the very people they were at war with, just retook lands from and were surrounded by. Not to mention reliant upon. The local population would never be on their side. They were isolated by potential enemies outside of their realms with vastly larger armies, and even outnumbered within! Further, they were in a new climatic and agricultural region, needing to learn and rely on the natives while forging trade agreements and diplomatic relations with a region they had just been at war with. Militarily, culturally, economically, politically, and in almost every way, they needed to build from scratch. But why would they face such a situation? I think it was their faith that made the decision easy, they had to do all they could and sacrifice everything, for God.

After the First Crusade, many Crusaders became monks or priests, seeing what they believed to be apparent divine intervention in the many battles they survived. They believed that God wanted the Holy Land to be in Christian hands, which was how they explained their incredible victories. Given some of the situations they were pulled out of and the lopsided victories they achieved, this should not surprise us. Yet, for all the stories brought back of divine intervention and miraculous victories against overwhelming odds that enthralled all of Europe, I see the battles to establish and even expand the crusader states in the years following the capture of the Holy City as being even more improbable.

The Faith and Fortitude of Crusader States

After the victory at the Battle of Ascalon in 1099 that established the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and with a minuscule force of 200 knights and perhaps only 2,000 infantry, Crusaders constantly wondered why Muslims, who were so many times more numerous, did not wipe them out as they easily could have. Instead, small Crusader armies often allied with Italian ships continued to prevail. In 1101, King Baldwin of Jerusalem could only muster about 1,000 soldiers to meet an invading Egyptian army. Even near the height of its power, in 1180, the most powerful realm of the Crusader states, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, could muster only 675-700 knights for battle.

Despite being so outnumbered, the crusader states expanded for a long time – even capturing Alexandria in 1167 and coming within 35 miles of Cairo, forcing the Egyptians to pay tribute to force them to leave. Earlier, in 1163, Egypt’s vizier Dirgham had had to destroy dams and thus cause a Nile flood to block the Christian army from attacking and taking Cairo. Egypt nearly fell in yet another invasion in 1164 and likely would have under other circumstances, but the King of Jerusalem had to go to the aid of his vassals in Antioch and Tripoli, who had been taken captive by Muslim forces. Crusaders performed especially well, given they were often forced to fast before the battle.

For each crusade, overwhelmingly the leading cause of death was starvation and diseases, not battle, yet thousands of Crusaders lost their lives by charging into an enemy so numerous as to be beyond any normal chance of victory. Yet, many times they triumphed! However, the opposing forces were so numerous that Crusaders could inflict massive losses on the enemy, but due to the drastic differences in manpower, they would still lose the battle.

Security, ease, and peace were not the motivators, nor was faith in divine help always at play; it was their faith in eternal life. Godfrey of Bouillon said “We are devout worshippers of the living God and of our Lord Jesus Christ, in whose name we go to battle. Our enemies trust in their strength; we, however, in the name of the living God. Trusting in his mercy, we do not hesitate to give battle to infidels and unbelievers. For we are the Lord’s, whether we live or die.” Describing the Knights Templar, one author wrote, “they did not ask how many of the enemy there were, but where they were.” It is to the controversial Knights Templar that we will now turn.

Knights Templar

“In this same year, certain noble men of knightly rank, religious men, devoted to God and fearing him, bound themselves to Christ’s service in the hands of the Lord Patriarch. They promised to live in perpetuity as regular canons, without possessions, under vows of chastity and obedience…Their primary duty, one which was enjoined upon them by the Lord Patriarch and the other bishops for the remission of sins, was that of protecting the roads and routes against the attacks of robbers and brigands. This they did especially to safeguard pilgrims.” –William of Tyre Describing the Origins of the Templars in 1118 A.D

The Knights Templar, formally the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, were a religious order of soldier-monks dedicated to ensuring pilgrims’ safety. They were granted a base in Jerusalem by King Baldwin II, located on the Temple Mount, from which they were named.

In a monastic order, they took vows of chastity, poverty, and service. They lived a life of prayer and regularly attended mass. They were modest, wearing white as a symbol of purity. The wearing of a red cross symbolized their acceptance of martyrdom. Writing of a typical Templar Knight, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux said “Why should he fear to live or fear to die when for him to live is Christ, and to die is gain? Gladly and faithfully he stands for Christ, but he would prefer to be dissolved and to be with Christ, by far the better thing.”

Like Western Catholicism, they did not fight on holy days or women and children or civilians. They aimed to defend the defenceless and the holy sites. Their noble deeds earned them large donations from the West in anticipation of their care and protection while travelling. They served as a military and religious order and helped maintain the Crusader states.

The Primitive Rule of the Templars had them cast away desires and gain from this world, serving only God. They were monks, a religious order called to divine obedience, diligence, and perseverance, expecting to die as martyrs in the cause of Christ and “charged with the duty of giving your souls for your brothers, as did Jesus Christ, and of defending the land from the unbelieving pagans who are the enemies of the son of the Virgin Mary.” They did not drink, hunt, or eat much meat and were to not focus on money and wealth but, as monks, willingly embrace poverty.

One contemporary described the Knights Templar as “Lions at war, and gentle as lambs at home; in the field, they were fierce soldiers, in church, they were like hermits or monks.” While renowned as great warriors, perhaps their power has been overstated as there were only about 300 Templar Knights at any given time in the Holy Land.

Other Orders

Even though it slowed, persecution of pilgrims by Muslims continued after the establishment of the Crusader states. For example, in 1119 some 300 pilgrims were killed and 60 sold into slavery. The knightly orders were created in response to these kinds of attacks.

The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem was originally established as a hospital to provide medical care and food to poor pilgrims. Over time, an armed branch was added to protect their services and those under their care. The Hospitallers, also known as the Knights of Saint John, were founded to provide medical care and armed protection for pilgrims visiting the Holy Land. The Grand Master was “the guardian of the poor” and they considered the poor their lords and themselves as mere serfs to the poor. In their hospitals, they treated everyone as if they were treating a queen or king. The Hospitals “treat each person with the reverence of Christ, caring for the poor and burying the dead regardless of race or religion.” They even maintained separate kitchens to provide Kosher food for their Jewish patients. They stated, “Knowing the Lord, who calls all to salvation, does not want anyone to perish, mercifully admits men of the pagan faith (Muslims) and Jews.” They also took vows of chastity and poverty. The Teutonic Knights began as the military wing of Saint Mary’s Hospital in Jerusalem.

Historians Thatcher and McNeal wrote, “The Middle Ages had two ideals, the monk and the soldier. The monk was the spiritual, the soldier the military hero. The military-monkish orders, whose members were both monks and soldiers, represent a fusion of these two ideals”.