The Mongol Storm

Nicholas Morton’s The Mongol Storm: Making and Breaking Empires in the Medieval Near East is a compelling and nuanced exploration of the Mongol invasions of the Near East during the 13th century. Through meticulous research and a balanced narrative, Morton revives the brutal realities of these conquests while illuminating their far-reaching consequences. His work goes beyond merely recounting military events, delving into the complex geopolitical, cultural, and religious upheavals that followed in the Mongols’ wake.

Morton opens with a poignant reminder of the devastation wrought by the Mongols. This encapsulates the immediate impact of the Mongol invasions—a violent storm that reshaped the landscape of the Near East. Morton’s narrative follows this storm from its inception in 1218, when the Mongol horsemen first appeared on the horizons of Central Asia, through the tumultuous century that followed.

What distinguishes Morton’s work is his ability to weave together various perspectives from across the region. He does not focus solely on the Mongols but also examines how different states and societies—from the Ayyubids in Egypt to the Crusader kingdoms in the Levant, from the Byzantine Empire to the Seljuk Turks—reacted to and were transformed by the Mongol onslaught. This approach allows him to transcend traditional military history, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the changes triggered by the Mongol invasions.

Morton’s treatment of the conquests is detailed yet accessible, alternating between the grand geopolitical shifts and the personal stories of brutality, survival and adaptation. For instance, he recounts the tale of Utrar’s governor, Inalchuq, who killed Mongol merchants Chinggis Khan sent to establish trading relations with Sultan Muhammed of the Kwaraxzmians Empire. “Mongol retribution was swift and decisive”, whereby the Mongol forces sieged and sacked the city. Inalchuq was executed in a “brutal manner, pouring molten metal into his mouth, eyes and ears”. Such stories add another dimension to the broader historical processes, making the book more than just a recounting of battles and conquests.

The book’s real-time approach to events effectively conveys the unpredictability of this period. Morton guides the reader through the rapid changes in allegiances, shifting power dynamics, and the uncertainty that pervaded the political landscape. As the Mongols advanced westward, toppling kingdoms and subjugating peoples, the states of the Near East were forced into constant adaptation. Some, like the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia and the Byzantine Empire’s rump state of Trebizond, became vassals of the Mongols, while others, like the Mamluks in Egypt, emerged as formidable opponents.

The Mamluks, who rose to power in the chaos following the Mongol invasions, are a focal point in Morton’s narrative. Their eventual victory over the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 marked a turning point, halting the Mongol advance into Egypt and establishing the Mamluks as a dominant force in the region. Morton’s analysis of the Mamluk-Mongol rivalry is nuanced, highlighting how the Mamluks consolidated power and stabilized the region in the aftermath of the Mongol storm.

Morton’s work is distinguished by its attention to the complex and often contradictory nature of the Mongol impact on the Near East. He does not shy away from depicting the brutality and destruction that accompanied the Mongol conquests, but he also acknowledges the unintended consequences of these events. For instance, while the Mongols’ religious tolerance disrupted established social hierarchies and caused considerable anxiety among Muslim elites, it also facilitated the spread of Islam through Sufi mystics and ultimately led to the conversion of the Mongol rulers themselves.

One of the strengths of The Mongol Storm is Morton’s ability to contextualize the Mongol conquests within the broader currents of medieval history. He situates the Mongol invasions within the context of ongoing conflicts in the Near East, such as the Crusades and the struggles between various Muslim dynasties. By doing so, he demonstrates how the Mongols were both a product of and a catalyst for the political, religious, and cultural transformations of the time.

Morton also challenges some of the more simplistic narratives that have emerged from recent scholarship on the Mongols. While many historians emphasize the cosmopolitan aspects of the Mongol Empire, Morton shows that this cosmopolitanism was not always benign. The Mongols’ claim to universal rule, rooted in their belief in a divine mandate from Eternal Heaven, often led to destabilizing policies for the societies they conquered. Morton’s portrayal of the Mongols is thus balanced, acknowledging both their contributions to the development of a more interconnected world and the devastating impact of their conquests on the people of the Near East.

In the final chapters, Morton explores the long-term consequences of the Mongol invasions, tracing the decline of Mongol power and the rise of new states, such as the Ottoman Empire, which would dominate the region in the centuries to come. Morton’s analysis of the Ottoman ascendancy is particularly insightful, as he highlights how the Ottomans capitalized on the power vacuum left by the Mongols to establish their empire.

While some readers might wish for a deeper exploration of the cultural and intellectual transformations during this period, The Mongol Storm remains a significant contribution to the study of the Mongol Empire and its impact on the Near East. Morton’s ability to synthesize a vast array of sources and present them in a clear, engaging narrative is commendable. His work provides valuable insights into a period of history often overshadowed by more familiar narratives of the Crusades and the rise of the Ottoman Empire.